Cat Tectonics

Years ago, I had a pair of feline roomies for about eight months.  Not being a cat person I generally ignored them, but one day I noticed they were nicely arranged on the carpet next to the wood stove.  What was their intent?  At the time I thought it was nothing more than a simple yin/yang posture, but now that I’m familiar with cat tectonics, I realize they were making a bold philosophical statement about continental crust -- that the interplay of creation and destruction maintains a balance overall, contrary to the widely-held opinion that crustal volume has increased with time.  In other words,

“The yin– yang creation–destruction balance changes over a supercontinent cycle, with crustal growth being greatest during supercontinent break-up due to high magmatic flux at new arcs and crustal destruction being greatest during supercontinent amalgamation due to subduction of continental material and increased sediment flux due to orogenic uplift.” (Stern and Scholl 2010).

Thesis of Stern and Scholl 2010 ...

... was presaged by Jazz and Spring in 2004.  Cats are amazing!

[This is my contribution to the June Accretionary Wedge (#57) hosted by Evelyn at Georneys.  The topic is Seeing Geology Everywhere, with a bit of an emphasis on geokittehs.]


Literature Cited

Stern, RJ and Scholl, DW.  2010.  Yin and yang of continental crust creation and destruction by plate tectonic processes.  Int. Geol. Rev. 52:1-31.  PDF here

Where are we? ... and why?

So far there hasn’t been much in the way of adventure in 2013.  Spring passed without a road trip, as work dictated otherwise.  However I managed to sneak away for a long weekend recently, and discovered this very interesting area:

From Google Earth; click on photo for more detail.

Few people would consider this part of the country a geo-destination ...

... but it is.

Sparky walks in the tracks of giants.

We found siliceous gravels from events far away and long ago (actually fairly recently, geologically-speaking).

In some places there were lots of plants ...

... even on buildings! ...

... but they were pretty sparse where we hiked.

And there was sky everywhere -- immense, blue and beautiful.

Geo-challenges always attract lots of readers, but rarely does anyone respond to the challenge.  If you think you know where we were, please leave a Comment.  I will publish any received next week, along with the rest of the story.

(Bi-) Centennial in Black-and-White

In the Company of Plants and Rocks turns 200 today -- i.e. this is my 200th post!  In celebration, I returned to Centennial, Wyoming, also featured in my 100th post, for a day of old-fashioned photography at the Nici Self Historical Museum.

My plan was to shoot in black-and-white.  We often think of black-and-white photography as old-fashioned, so antiques at the Museum seemed ideal subjects.  I searched online for advice, compiled a cheat sheet of tips (below), and headed west to Centennial.  It was opening day of the 2013 season.

The Nici Self Historical Museum is housed in the depot of the Laramie Hahn’s Peak & Pacific Railroad (above), dedicated July 4, 1907.  The line was built to bring in tourists from the Union Pacific line in Laramie.

Tip #1  Shoot in color, see in black and white.

Almost everyone advises to shoot in color and convert to black-and-white later, rather than using the camera’s black-and-white mode.  Post-processing programs do a better job, and it’s easier to tweak results on a computer.  Of course shooting in black-and-white mode allows for immediate feedback from the LCD, but in reality, many of the features of concern are too subtle to see, at least with my Canon Rebel T3i.

So it’s necessary to visualize a black-and-white version of a scene in one’s mind, to see things without the distraction of color, to imagine lighting, textures and objects in shades of gray.  Will there be something of interest?  Will the subject or message be clear in the absence of color?

This photo was easy to anticipate, since the typewriter was black and white to begin with.

It was fairly easy to visualize backlit landscapes in black and white.  Below, Buckeye School, and the old beehive burner from a nearby sawmill; horse-drawn plow in foreground.

Tip #2  Avoid scenes and subjects that depend on color for interest and appeal.

The wheel of a 1917 fire engine is boring in black-and-white.  The message of the photo is clear, but the scene feels lifeless without the bright contrasting colors.

Tip #3  In the absence of color, emphasize other elements.

Shapes, lines, structure, pattern, texture ... all can be intriguing in the absence of color. This is convenient, as I like composing with these things.  I like shooting just part of what we typically consider a scene.  Below, blades of a Rotary Hoe Renovator used at the University of Wyoming to raise sunflowers for feed.  Purchased in 1930.

All the old machinery on the Museum grounds kept me fascinated for a long time.  Below, gear wheels on a hay baler built by the Admiral Hay Press Co. in Kansas City, Missouri in 1920.  It was made to bail hay, but probably was used in Centennial to bail paper.

Tip #4  Keep it simple.

Without color to bring out various objects in a photo, I found myself tending towards simplicity, as crutter suggested in a helpful post at Digital Photography World:

“look out for subjects that feature simple, strong lines and shapes ... black-and-white images need strong compositions to really work.  Keep an eye out for strong lines or features in your scene that can be used as leading lines, or positioned diagonally across the frame to create dynamic images.”

Threshing machine, 1899-1916.

Handle of a press used at the University of Wyoming to render lard from butchered hogs.  The lard was sold to the Gem City Grocery in Laramie.

Tip #5  Think about light.

Strong contrast makes a black-and-white photo more bold or striking.  Again, simplifying seems to help in emphasizing composition in light and shade.

The blacksmith's shop.

A logger's tools.

Silhouettes are obvious high-contrast subjects, like these patterned curtains against the Museum's bedroom window.

At the other end of the spectrum (ha!) are high-key photos.  A light background and diffuse light to minimize shadows are recommended.  The pale green jewelry box below was sitting on a white window sill in the bedroom.  I brightened the scene in post-processing, as the camera over-compensated for all the light.  I also reduced contrast.  To give a softer more old-fashioned look, I maxed out the De-noise slider in iPhoto.

Tip #6  Avoid bland skies.

This was something I hadn’t thought about before.  Converted to black-and-white, a gorgeous blue sky becomes a very boring gray.  Dramatic skies are much better (it helps to crank up the contrast a bit).

Buckeye School -- one-room schoolhouse used from 1906 to the early 1960s.

Tip #7  Don’t forego post-processing.

During my self-education online, it became clear that it's just fine to modify photos.  After all, the camera itself processes images and may make less-than-perfect decisions.  Most often I played with contrast, highlights and shadows, using iPhoto for almost everything.

The Old-fashioned Look

Hanging out in the past with all the antiques and memories made me want to emphasize old-fashioned in my photos.  I experimented with graininess in post-processing, using the Artistic > Film Grain filter in Photoshop.  I sometimes reduced the apparent quality of images by taking away detail with the De-noise slider in iPhoto, as in the jewelry box photo earlier in the post.

Betsy takes time to enjoy a subtly grainy scene.

Photos don’t have to be black-and-white to look old.  Reducing saturation (color) often is all that's needed to go back to a time of softer, subtler scenes and beauty.

Wax cylinder recordings of “Elizabeth AND Dora Singing” and “E. S. Oslen Singing.”

A well-stocked kitchen shelf.

Wood stove in the Buckeye School ...

... and a well-read book.

I also experimented with old-fashioned rules of composition ... or lack thereof.  In looking at really old photos, it seems photography had a different purpose then, perhaps more documentation than art.  There was less concern for some of the things we worry about now -- like rules of composition.  Symmetry wasn't a big concern, for example.

Two old sawmill blades patiently pose for a portrait.

Particularly characteristic of the times were stiff, unnatural portraits -- unavoidable due to very slow film.  Subjects had to sit as still as possible for uncomfortably long periods of time.  In the photo below, taken in Centennial Valley the early 1900s, the subjects did well for the most part.  Only the dog failed to cooperate.

From the Geddes Collection, Nici Self Historical Museum.

I wanted to shoot my own old-fashioned portrait of Centennial citizens, and the Museum staff cheerfully agreed to pose for my experiment.  To make this an old photo, I took away all color, increased graininess, and reduced detail (De-noise slider).  I then added a layer of black specks and faded part of the image to show the passage of time.

The museum staff tried their hardest to sit still for the tiny fraction of a second required ...

... but it wasn’t easy!

A special “thank you” to Museum staffers Cecily, Deb and Nancy for providing access, information and lots of fun!

How to Get There

Centennial sits at the foot of the Medicine Bow Mountains in southeast Wyoming, 30 miles west of Laramie on Highway 130, the Snowy Range Road.  The Nici Self Historical Museum is on the left (south) coming into town.  It’s open Memorial Day to Labor Day, Thursday through Monday, noon to 4 PM.  In September, hours are noon to 4 PM on weekends.  Admission is free, but donations are gratefully accepted.  Tours can be arranged during the off-season, or if one of the dedicated volunteer staff happens to drive by while you’re wandering around on the grounds, they’ll most likely stop and offer a tour!  To plan your visit, check out the new website.

Sources

Information about buildings and items at the Museum comes from the Outdoor Displays brochure (draft) and the Nici Self Historical Museum website.

The Girls are in Bloom (too)

Admiring the opposite sex.

Quaking aspen don't get much attention these days.  Most people are gawking at and raving about brightly-colored spring wildflowers, especially the pasque flowers, while the aspen trees remain leafless, just standing there, seemingly doing nothing.

Quaking aspen, Populus tremuloides.

But looks are deceiving of course.  In reality their growing season is already well underway ... just look at the trunks.  Aspen are famous for smooth white bark, but in this stand it’s more of a pale green, especially on younger trees.  The bark contains chlorophyll, for converting sunlight to energy, and these trees are photosynthesizing even without leaves. In fact, the green bark may out-produce the leaves until well into the growing season (Pearson 1958).

Green aspen bark may to be more common where growing seasons are shorter (Pearson 1958). 

Not only are the aspen photosynthesizing, they’re in full bloom!  Few notice because the flowers are so small and drab ... though in the right light, they can be quite lovely.

Backlit male catkins (flower clusters).

Aspen are dioecious, i.e. male and female flowers are found on separate individuals.  Moreover, aspen readily spread by vegetative propagation (root sprouts), so an entire stand may be a single individual and all trees will be the same sex.  Until last week, all stands I had hiked through were male. 

Male aspen flowers are reduced, incomplete and imperfect ... but hardly inadequate!  They should be admired for their elegant efficiency.  They have just what it takes to produce pollen and cast it to the wind.  [reduced = tiny; incomplete = missing parts; imperfect = unisexual]

A male aspen flower is just a disc with stamens; hairy floral bract on right.  From FNA.

Male quaking aspen were featured in a previous post, The Boys are in Bloom. The only reason I didn't include female trees was that I hadn't seen any.  Now finally I have.

Female quaking aspen in full bloom.

The female flowers are showier than the males.  They're green for one thing, and bigger, especially as the ovaries ripen.

Female catkin with green flowers and brown fringed floral bracts;  ca 1 in long.  Photo courtesy dgm.

A female flower consists of a pistil perched on a cup-shaped disc.  The plump ovary is topped by a brown 2-lobed stigma, ready to receive pollen (click on photo above).  Below, pistil in cup-shaped disc on left; capsule on right has split to release seeds; from FNA.

With time, the ripening ovaries swell and the stigmas wither.  At maturity, each ovary becomes a capsule containing seeds topped with fine hairs.  Eventually the capsules will split, and the seeds will take to the wind.  In the photo above, suture lines are visible on some of the young capsules.  Note fringed floral bracts and remains of brown stigmas.

Why has it taken so long to find female trees?  Are they less common?  I can’t say as I haven’t sampled sufficiently (should hike more, work less).  Do females bloom later?  I don’t think so -- I saw both male and female catkins on my hike last week.  The males were drooping, looking tired and spent.  The females were fully elongated, with plump green capsules.  The flowering season was coming to an end.

I kept on through the shady grove.  It was chilly and I was thinking about turning around when suddenly I was surrounded by trees glowing in the sunshine.  They were starting to leaf out.  Young aspen leaves are yellow-green -- not nearly as showy as the brilliant gold and orange ones of fall, but gorgeous enough when backlit!


Literature Cited

Pearson, LC and Lawrence, DB.  1958.  Photosynthesis in aspen bark.  American Journal of Botany 45:383-387.

Good Morning, Good Morning!

Last week as I was walking along a trail through pines and aspen, looking at patterns of light and shade, I was suddenly halted in my tracks by a radiant cluster of pasque flowers, all glowing in the morning sunshine.  “Good morning, good morning!” they called sweetly.

You doubt me?  I assure you this is what I heard, though I had to listen very carefully because pasque flowers are shy -- that’s why they often turn their heads and always whisper.  But once upon a time, long ago, things were different ...

“In the long ago, whenever any of the people happened to pass by where these flowers were blooming they tried to show the friendliness which they felt for human beings by nodding their heads in the chilly spring wind, showing their smiling faces and saying, “Good morning! Good morning!”  But the people passed them unheeding.  They became abashed at this indifference, so nowadays still feeling friendly towards the people in spite of such rebuffs, they bashfully turn their heads to one side as they nod and call their kindly greetings in their sweet low voice.”  (Dakota story, from Gilmore 1922)

Just starting to bloom, these pasque flowers bashfully turn their heads.

How anyone could walk by pasque flowers "unheeding" is beyond me.  In fact most Wyoming folks are thrilled to find them -- they bring us great joy!  They're among the first plants to bloom in spring (May in the mountains), along with Easter daisies and sagebrush buttercups.  Even better, pasque flowers are large and showy.  Some of the plants I saw were a good six inches tall.  How do they manage to grow so quickly so early in the season?

Easter daisies stay small and low-to-the-ground, even when flowering.  Coin ca 0.5 in across.

A pasque flower in full bloom hardly seems shy.  Purple sepals ca 1 in long.

The pasque flower’s trick is to form buds the previous fall, buds covered with silky hairs that help keep them warm.  The downy coats are the source of another common name -- goslinweed.  Several emerging goslings are visible at the base of the plant above.

Pasque flower, goslinweed, prairie crocus, pulsatille, hokshi-chekpa wahcha (Dakota for twin flower) and prairie smoke (more commonly used for Geum triflorum) all are names for this plant.  In school we’re taught that scientific names, though constructed from a dead language (Latin), are what we should use because they don’t have the ambiguity and confusion associated with common names.  This is not the case with the pasque flower however.  The experts remain divided.  Some call it Pulsatilla patens, others Anemone patens, and a few try to maintain the original Pulsatilla ludoviciana, though declared invalid years ago.  In any case, the pasque flower is a member of the Ranunculaceae (buttercup family) and is closely related to anemones, if not actually one itself.

Six-to-eight petal-like sepals surround numerous stamens, with numerous pistils at the very center.

Though showy, pasque flowers are but a brief flash of color in the spring sunshine.  They soon drop their sepals, and the pistils mature into seed-bearing achenes with long tails.  This is when the leaves really get going.  Most vegetative growth occurs after flowering, and leaves are present through much of the growing season, converting sunshine to energy and finally to buds (goslings) for next year.

The Pasque Flower; from Mountain Wild Flowers Of America by Julia Henshaw (1906, Ginn & Co.)

When Melvin Gilmore was studying the ethnobotany of Great Plains tribes in the early 1900s (see Note below), he came across another charming story about the pasque flower.  Later in the spring, when many flowers are in bloom and brightly decorated with colorful petals, the pasque flower has already gone to seed.  So it sings a song to the other flowers, hoping to share its wisdom:

“I wish to encourage the children

Of other flower nations now appearing

All over all the face of the earth;

So while they awaken from sleeping

And come up from the heart of the earth

I am standing here old and gray-headed.”

(translated from the Dakota language by A. McG. Beede; in Gilmore 1919)

It's still early spring but already seeds are ripe, each topped by a long feathery tail.

Note:  In the early 1900s, Melvin R. Gilmore interviewed elderly Plains Indians who had once gathered native plants and still knew the old names and uses.  He was determined to gather this knowledge ...

"while it may still be obtained, before the death of all the old people who alone possess it ... The old people themselves appreciate this and have expressed themselves as glad to give me all the information they could in the matters of my inquiry, in order that, as they said, future generations of their own people as well as the white people may know and understand their manner of life."

Gilmore first reported his findings as a PhD dissertation at the University of Nebraska (1914).  In 1919, it was published by the Bureau of American Ethnology.  Several years later he wrote Prairie Smoke, a wonderful compilation of Plains Indian stories and legends.

Sources (and recommended reading!)

Gilmore, M.R.  1919.  Use of plants by the Indians of the Missouri River region.  Bureau of American Ethnology.

Gilmore, M.R.  1922.  Prairie smoke, a collection of lore of the prairies (2nd ed., revised). Bismark, ND.  Available online at the Project Gutenberg.

Ode, D.J.  2006.  Dakota flora, a seasonal sampler.  Pierre:  SD State Historical Society Press.